Choosing Sources — Introduction
Imagine that you have a question about spiders. Which of the following sources of information would be the most reliable?
- This one woman I talked to on the bus
- A random website
- An arachnologist (a scientist who studies spiders and other arachnids)
The arachnologist is probably the most reliable source. Similarly, if I tell someone my information comes from an arachnologist, I’ll seem more reliable. If I based my claims about spiders on information from strangers on public transportation or FunTimeCatBlog.com, I won’t seem all that reliable.
Citing sources in academic writing is similar. The basic idea is to to cite the work of people who have experience or expertise in the topic you’re discussing.
Types of Sources
Reliable information
In college, it’s important to understand what makes information reliable or not. Different academic fields have different standards about what makes something reliable, but there’s general agreement about certain kinds of sources.
Perhaps the most trusted source of information and analysis is a subject-matter expert. For example, Jennifer Eberhardt, whose book you read earlier in the semester, is an expert in implicit bias in law enforcement. But is Eberhardt 100% reliable? The answer is no. No source is 100% reliable. Even a carefully conducted scientific study needs to be supported by other studies or else it won’t ultimately be accepted as “science.”
Below are a few kinds of potentially reliable sources of information and analysis, although the list definitely doesn’t cover everything. As you read, notice that each type of source presents its own advantages and drawbacks. That’s why it’s helpful to use different kinds of sources in your research paper.
Raw data, the original source
Sources that consist of raw data are usually called primary sources. These vary depending on what academic field you’re in. For example, a historian might look at diaries, census figures, and other historical records for evidence on which to build an argument about what life was like during a previous time period. On the other hand, an astrophysicist might work with raw data from a telescope.
Raw data doesn’t necessarily need to be academic. If you’re a parent arguing that school lunches need to be healthier, you might look at a school menu or ask your kid.
In some ways, primary sources are the most authoritative sources there are, although they can still be flawed and often need a lot of analysis, preferably from an expert, to be meaningful.
Studies conducted by experts
Studies done by experts, like academic researchers, are sometimes called secondary sources. In academic studies, writers with specialized training interpret and make meaning out of raw data. For example, a historian might interpret 15th-century artifacts from central Mexico to make an argument about Aztec agricultural practices. Because academic studies are done by experts, rely heavily on raw data, and go through a rigorous vetting process, they are often quite reliable. One drawback of academic sources is that they’re usually difficult for a non-expert to understand. Academic studies often take one of two forms.
- Books from Academic Presses. In many academic fields, it’s also common for experts to publish their work in book form. The publishers of these books are often associated with colleges and universities. Some examples of publishers include Texas A&M University Press, Harvard University Press, and University Press of Mississippi. Like academic journals, academic books are often quite difficult to understand. In general, they’re written by experts for other experts.
- Journal Articles. The first kind includes articles published in peer-reviewed journals. A peer-reviewed journal is kind of like a magazine, although they’re often published less frequently than magazines and, like magazines, many journals are now published only online. “Peer-reviewed” means that other experts (peers) within the field have reviewed articles before they’re published in the journal. This process is designed to ensure accuracy (although the process isn’t perfect). Pretty much every academic discipline has its own journals, and they’re usually highly specialized. For example, NeuroImageLinks to an external site. is an academic journal that specializes in studies of the brain using neuroimaging technology.
Reliable sources that use everyday language
Edited Books, Newspapers, Magazines, and Websites. Unlike the dense studies published in academic journal articles, newspaper articles are often much easier to understand. That’s because they’re written for non-experts. For example, a journalist reporting about scientific discoveries might try to explain scientists’ work to the general public. In some ways, that’s really helpful. On the other hand, information becomes less reliable when journalists simplify it because, after they do, it’s a few steps further away from raw data and it isn’t being vetted directly by experts. Still, many books, newspapers, magazines, and websites are edited, meaning they go through a review process that involves fact-checking and so on. In other words, you’re not just taking one person’s word for it. Still, there might be a greater chance of bias or inaccuracy of some kind.
Of course, all work for the general public isn’t written by journalists. Sometimes experts write their own books for the general public. For example, Biased: Uncovering the Hidden Prejudice That Shapes What We See, Think, and Do is a book written by psychology professor Jennifer L. Eberhardt, a subject-matter expert, but she’s writing for a general audience.
Self-Published Articles, Books, and Websites. People, including experts, can easily publish their own work nowadays, and information from these self-published sources can be reliable… or not.
Where should I start?
When you’re conducting research, I suggest starting with edited newspapers, magazines, websites, and those sorts of things. Articles published in well-established newspapers are often pretty reliable, and because they’re easier to understand, they can usually help you to get a pretty good grasp of a topic quickly. As a college student, you probably have free access to many high-quality newspapers and other news sources through the library website (and in person).
The SIFT method
One popular method of evaluating sources is called “SIFT,” which stands for:
- Stop
- Investigate the source
- Find better coverage
- Trace claims, quotes, and media to the original context
Watch the following 3-minute video for an overview that shows why SIFT is helpful.
The SIFT method is an evaluation strategy developed by digital literacy expert Mike Caulfield to help determine whether online content can be trusted for credible or reliable sources of information.
Let’s go through the steps of SIFT, one by one.
Before you read or share an article or video, STOP!
Be aware of your emotional response to the headline or information in the article. Headlines are often meant to get clicks, and will do so by causing the reader to have a strong emotional response.
Before sharing, consider:
- What you already know about the topic.
- What you know about the source. Do you know it’s reputation?
Before moving forward or sharing, use the other three moves: Investigate the Source, Find Better Coverage, and Trace Claims, Quotes, and Media Back to the Original Context.
The next step before sharing is to Investigate the Source.
Take a moment to look up the author and source publishing the information.
- What can you find about the author/website creators?
- What is their mission? Do they have vested interests? Would their assessment be biased?
- Do they have authority in the area?
Use lateral reading. Go beyond the “About Us” section on the organization’s website and see what other, trusted sources say about the source. You can use Google or Wikipedia to investigate the source.
Hovering is another technique to learn more about who is sharing information, especially on social media platforms such as Twitter.
Watch the following 3-minute video to see how to use Wikipedia to quickly investigate sources.
The next step is to Find Better Coverage or other sources that may or may not support the original claim.
Again, use lateral reading to see if you can find other sources corroborating the same information or disputing it. What coverage is available on the topic? Keep track of trusted news sources.
Many times, fact checkers have already looked into the claims. These fact-checkers are often nonpartisan, nonprofit websites that try to increase public knowledge and understanding by fact checking claims to see if they are based on fact or if they are biased/not supported by evidence.
The final step is to Trace Claims, Quotes, and Media to Their Original Context.
When an article references a quote from an expert, or results of a research study, it is good practice to attempt to locate the original source of the information. Click through the links to follow the claims to the original source of information. Open up the original reporting sources listed in a bibliography if present.
- Was the claim, quote, or media fairly represented?
- Does the extracted information support the original claims in the research?
- Is information being cherry-picked to support an agenda or a bias?
- Is information being taken out of context?
Remember, headlines, blog posts, or tweets may sensationalize facts to get more attention or clicks. Re-reporting may omit, misinterpret, or select certain facts to support biased claims. If the claim is taken from a source who took it from another source, important facts and contextual information can be left out. Make sure to read the claims in the original context in which they were presented.
When in doubt, contact an expert – like a librarian!
The information in this section is taken from the University of Chicago library’s website, which adapted it from Mike Caulfield’s materials shared with a CC BY 4.0 license.
The CRAP test
Another popular, and perhaps more memorable, method of evaluating sources is “CRAP” or “CRAAP.” This acronym stands for:
- Currency
- Relevance
- Authority
- Accuracy
- Purpose
Watch the following 5-minute video for an overview of how to use the CRAP Test to evaluate potential sources.
The CRAAP Test is an evaluation method that was designed by librarian Sarah Blakeslee at the Meriam Library – California State University, Chico. CRAAP is a method and list of questions to evaluate the nature and value of the information that you find.
Check out Evaluating Information – Applying the CRAAP Test Document from Meriam Library – California State University, Chico for more.
C – Currency
The timeliness of the information:
- When was the information published or posted?
- Has the information been revised or updated?
- Does your topic require current information, or will older sources work as well?
- Are the links functional?
R – Relevance
The importance of the information for your needs:
- Does the information relate to your topic or answer your question?
- Who is the intended audience?
- Is the information at an appropriate level (i.e. not too elementary or advanced for your needs)?
- Have you looked at a variety of sources before determining this is one you will use?
- Would you be comfortable citing this source in your research paper?
A – Authority
The source of the information:
- Who is the author/publisher/source/sponsor?
- What are the author’s credentials or organizational affiliations?
- Is the author qualified to write on the topic?
- Is there contact information, such as a publisher or email address?
- Does the URL reveal anything about the author or source?
- .ac.uk = Academic institutions in the UK
- .edu = Educational institutions
- .gov = Government
- .nhs.uk = Health information services in the UK
- .mil = Military
A – Accuracy
The reliability, truthfulness, and correctness of the content:
- Where does the information come from?
- Is the information supported by evidence?
- Has the information been reviewed or refereed?
- Can you verify any of the information in another source or from personal knowledge?
- Does the language or tone seem unbiased and free of emotion?
- Are there spelling, grammar or typographical errors?
P – Purpose
The reason the information exists:
- What is the purpose of the information? Is it to inform, teach, sell, entertain or persuade?
- Do the authors/sponsors make their intentions or purpose clear?
- Is the information fact, opinion or propaganda?
- Does the point of view appear objective and impartial?
- Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional or personal biases?
The information in this section is taken from the University of Chicago library’s website and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
Photo of glasses by Dmitry Ratushny on Unsplash